Recent Advances in Nanovaccines Using Biomimetic Immunomodulatory Materials

Vijayan, Veena; Mohapatra, Adityanarayan; Uthaman, Saji; Park, In-Kyu

Cell-membrane-coated NPs are other types of biomimetic nanovaccines that are used as anticancer therapeutic agents [126] . Because of the presence of several functional molecules on the cell surface, the cell membrane coating on the nanovaccines acts as a native antigen for the immune cells in the tumor [126] . A cell membrane coating on the hydrophobic core of NPs demonstrated a self-recognizing property for targeting [39] . RBC-coated NPs could evade the immune system, due to the presence of various immunomodulatory markers on the membrane surface, and prolong the circulation for a longer time, thus enhancing the therapeutic activity [103] . Mushi et al. developed a camouflaged nanocarrier coated with Hela human cervix carcinoma cellular membrane onto the nanocarrier. The nanocarrier was composed of doxorubicin, and PD-L1 siRNA loaded into the PLGA NP to target cancer cells [132] . The hybridization of both the cancer cell and RBC membranes is a superior approach to the delivery of therapeutic active molecules for cancer therapy [133] . The cancer cell membrane helps in homo-typing targeting by self-recognition, while the RBC membrane prolongs the blood circulation by evading the immune system of our body [133] . The surface proteins of the cancer cell membrane act as a tumor antigen that will trigger the immune response. Yang et al. [52] reported a cancer cell membrane-coated PLGA NP loaded with TLR-7 agonist, imiquimod (R837), and modified with mannose by a surface lipid anchoring method (Figure 7 ). Mannose modification on the surface of the nanovaccine can trigger the antigen-presenting cells uptake and lymph node migration for higher DC maturation. Cancer cell membrane coating performed as a targeting moiety and a cancer-specific antigen. Immune modulatory agent imiquimod (R837) can stimulate the production of cytotoxicity T-cells to kill the cancer cells, and the combined biomimetic vaccines act as an anticancer vaccine by inhibiting cancer cell progression, compared to other controls [52] . Melanoma cancer cell-membrane-coated PLGA NP loaded with CpG oligodeoxynucleotide augmented the anti-tumor immunity and could be used as an antigen/adjuvant vaccination. The cancer cell membrane acted as a tumor antigen and enhanced the immune response. This biomimetic nanovaccine triggered the antigen-presenting cell maturation and proinflammatory cytokines, i.e., interleukin-6 and interleukin-12 (IL-12), by modulating the immune responses to cancer cells [134] . cells in the tumor [126] . A cell membrane coating on the hydrophobic core of NPs demonstrated a self-recognizing property for targeting [39] . RBC-coated NPs could evade the immune system, due to the presence of various immunomodulatory markers on the membrane surface, and prolong the circulation for a longer time, thus enhancing the therapeutic activity [103] . Mushi et al. developed a camouflaged nanocarrier coated with Hela human cervix carcinoma cellular membrane onto the nanocarrier. The nanocarrier was composed of doxorubicin, and PD-L1 siRNA loaded into the PLGA NP to target cancer cells [132] . The hybridization of both the cancer cell and RBC membranes is a superior approach to the delivery of therapeutic active molecules for cancer therapy [133] . The cancer cell membrane helps in homo-typing targeting by self-recognition, while the RBC membrane prolongs the blood circulation by evading the immune system of our body [133] . The surface proteins of the cancer cell membran