Ribosomal frameshifting and transcriptional slippage: From genetic steganography and cryptography to adventitious use

Atkins, John F.; Loughran, Gary; Bhatt, Pramod R.; Firth, Andrew E.; Baranov, Pavel V.

Eukaryote-infecting viruses that utilize frameshifting in their expression are listed in Table 1 . At present it appears that decoding of a substantial majority of all cellular and viral genomes likely productively utilizes frameshifting (inclusion of bacterial viruses is relevant). Viruses, especially RNA viruses, and other mobile elements, have comparatively small genomes, and the prelevance of frameshift utilization appears more striking than in much larger cellular genomes. As compact genomes, expecially those whose expression does not involve splicing, richly use translational versatility and controls, it is not surprising that frameshift utilization is no exception. Utilization of at least one frameshifting event in RNA virus decoding is almost more the rule than the exception. With the ongoing application of deep sequencing to viruses of terrestrial invertebrates, marine species of all types and to bacteria plus archaea in numerous isolated deep sub-surface niches, knowledge of instances of viral frameshifting seems certain to expand (with at least the bacterial and achaeal genomes providing prophage/integrated viral genome information).